Accounting History Essay Example

Accounting History Essay Example Accounting History Essay Accounting History Essay A SHORT HISTORY OF ACCOUNTING AND BUSINESS The history of accounting is as old as civilization, among the most important professions in economic and cultural development. Accountants invented writing, developed money and banking, innovated the double entry bookkeeping system that fueled the Italian Renaissance, were needed by Industrial Revolution inventors and entrepreneurs for survival, helped develop the capital markets necessary for big business so essential for capitalism, turned into a profession that brought credibility for complex business practices that sparked the economic boom of the 20th century, and are central to the information revolution that is now transforming the global economy. Twenty-first century accounting will resemble rocket science and will continue to be among the critical professions of the new century. Accountants have not excelled in public relations, but their story is fascinating. And here it is. There are no household names among the accounting innovators; in fact, virtually no names survive before the Italian Renaissance. It took archaeologists to dig up the early history and scholars from many fields to demonstrate the importance of accounting to so many aspects of economics and culture. This book covers the great events. From merchants and scribes long before writing and money, to today’s global information networks. Accounting history is summarized in seven chapters. An overview places accounting in perspective. In some ways accounting hasn’t changed since Luca Paciolli (father of modern accounting) wrote the first textbook in 1494. On the other hand, accounting has led the information revolution. Many aspects of 21st century accounting will be unrecognizable by today’s professional leaders. Understanding the role of financial needs today and in the future requires an understanding of the past. The role of accounting in the ancient world is coming into clearer focus with new archaeological discoveries and innovative interpretations of the artifacts. It is now evident that writing developed over at least five thousand years- by accountants. The roles of trade, money, and credit also have long and complex histories. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of double entry bookkeeping. It was central to the success of the Italian merchants, necessary to birth of the Renaissance. The Industrial Revolution depended on inventors and entrepreneurs, not accountants. It is the survival of their firms that required innovative accounting and, later, the development of a profession. Big business, particularly the railroads, required capital markets that depended on accurate and useful information. This was supplied by the expanding accounting profession. The earliest of the Big Eight started in mid-nineteenth century London. Turn of the century America saw the rise of really big business, governable because of improvement in cost accounting. But the Crash of 1929 and the subsequent Great Depression demonstrated problems with capital markets, business practices, and, yes, considerable deficiencies in accounting practices. Many aspects of current accounting practices started with the flood of business regulations from the Roosevelt administration. The earliest electronic computers were funded to assist the World War II efforts. By 1950 massive efforts were begun to automate accounting practices, a continuing process. A global real-time integrated system is a near reality, suggesting new accounting paradigms replacing double entry and generally accepted accounting principles. Why read this book? What we do today in accounting is based on a 10,000-year history. Understanding this history is necessary to comprehending the linkages of accounting to career potential, financial regulation, tax, accounting systems, and management decision issues. This history also is a powerful tool to predict the accounting of the next generation. The father and the first innovator of accountancy is Luca Pacioli (1445 1517), also known as Friar Luca dal Borgo, is credited for the birth of accounting. His Summa de arithmetica, geometrica, proportioni et proportionalita (Summa on arithmetic, geometry, proportions and proportionality, Venice 1494), was a textbook for use in the abbaco schools of northern Italy, where the sons of merchants and craftsmen were educated. It was a compendium of the mathematical knowledge of his time, and includes the first printed description of the method of keeping accounts that Venetian merchants used at that time, known as the double-entry accounting system. Although Pacioli codified rather than invented this system, he is widely regarded as the Father of Accounting. The system he published included most of the accounting cycle as we know it today. He described the use of journals and ledgers, and warned that a person should not go to sleep at night until the debits equalled the credits! His ledger had accounts for assets (including receivables and inventories), liabilities, capital, income, and expenses - the account categories that are reported on an organisations balance sheet and income statement, respectively. He demonstrated year-end closing entries and proposed that a trial balance be used to prove a balanced ledger. His treatise also touches on a wide range of related topics from accounting ethics to cost accounting.

Monostasm essays

Monostasm essays Christian monasticism had its origin in Egypt. In the second and third centuries, Christians sought to lead ascetic and holy lives in the deserts of Egypt. Some lived alone as hermits, and others formed communes where they devoted themselves to the pursuit of holiness rather than worldly success. Christianity became legal in the fourth century, and the monastic lifestyle became popular throughout the Roman Empire. In the early days of monasticism, each community developed its own rules, procedures, and priorities. Some communities demanded strict lifestyles and some did not, which resulted in Monks frittering away their time or wandered aimlessly from one monastic house to another. These haphazard conditions prevented monasteries from mounting effective Christian missions. The early monastic movement was strengthened by St Benedict of Nursia in 529. He prepared a set of regulations known as Benedicts Rule that he founded at Monte Cassino. The rule did not permit extreme asceticism, but required monks to take vows to lead communal, celibate lives under the absolute direction of the abbot who supervised the monastery: poverty, chastity, and obedience became prime virtues for the Benedictine monks. The Rule also called for monks to spend their time in prayer, meditation, and work. Hours were divided up during the day into periods of study, reflection, and manual labor. They were called, matins, lauds, prime, teree, sext, nones, uespers, and compline. The discipline introduced by the Rule strengthened monasteries. They became a dominant feature in the social and cultural life of Western Europe throughout the middle ages. Monasteries helped to restore order in the country and expand agriculture production. They accumulated large landholdings, as well as authority over serfs working their lands. Mostly in France and Germany, abbots of monasteries dispatched teams of monks and serfs to clear forests, drain swamps, and p...

Fashion Marketing -Marks and Spencer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Fashion Marketing -Marks and Spencer - Essay Example The essay "Fashion Marketing - Marks and Spencer" concerns the fashion marketing. The company started by Amancio Ortega at the Northern part of Spain continually enjoyed growth in the Spanish market through strategic prepositions. Initially, the chain served the needs of the local consumer in the young feminine segment. Within the last ten years, the company grew proportionately to increased revenues and consumer loyalty through the modernized approaches that it employed. The company preserves the strengths of analyzing the customer targets in the market as serving the entire fashion market poses more threats than opportunities. The company defines that the youthful female consumer depicts a standardized behavior throughout the geographical segments. Zara depicts that the consumer buying decision model affects all businesses alike. The company analyzes fashion needs through the online research surveys and establishes on the fashion trends that depict a favorable rate of return on inv estment. Through a communicative channel that tends to link the company to the consumer, Zara advertises on the release of the garments that target to suit perceived consumer needs. The company runs a solely owned ultramodern factory that designs and makes garments in accordance to the anticipated consumer needs. Zara communicates actual date of releasing the new makes to the customer, and through an effective delivery chain, the company avails the garments to the more than 1500 outlets in 70 countries of the world economy. ... The Limited Collection brand was introduced in the late 2004; it was not being considered that it could significantly remain helpful to create such a unique differentiation. But it remained pretty successful and customers showed a very high adoptability towards the brand. However it has its same placement and the concept oriented approach which keenly values the notion of cost and brand consciousness. Serving segment is cost conscious group, target population is high class and upper middle class whereas positioning of the products is as a high quality and distinguished fashioned products. The Limited Collection brand offers a wide range of women’s, men’s and kid’s wear. The best feature of the brand is that the offerings are replaced each week from the outlet. In this way, it has a vast choice and unique variety because of rapid replacement of display items from the stores. The section of Limited Collection is not offered at every outlet which is a step towards a specification orientation (Marketingweek.co.uk, 2004). Competitors’ Analysis for Marks and Spencer Competitors’ analysis is really worth when designing a lucrative marketing strategy. The competitors of Marks and Spencer in fashion industry include a wide range of potential competitors. The competitors may include elite class fashion designers to middle class fashion wears. It is important to study the characteristics of the competitors. The realistic competitors of M&S are those who present their products to the population of upper middle class and higher classes of the society. Specifically the competitors of M&S may include Alde, Centra, Levi’s and ASDA. Although some of these companies

Case analysis Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 4

Analysis - Case Study Example Moreover, his state of having suffered soft muscle tissue damage does not stop him from achieving positive business target. On the other hand, Peter is also ambitious to launch a satellite communication system as part of demonstration of his course. The above is an indication of both personal and physically oriented entrepreneurial characteristic that is also very important for the business sustainability especially during low returns. Despite having been very close friends and learnt in a similar high school, the nature of financial support of the two colleagues is quite distinct. Besides, such an issue does not bar the two friends from achieving financial relationship necessary for a prospective development and sophisticated transformed network. With an effort towards achieving business obligation and future prosperity, Mooney turned down Peter’s offer to purchase for him an electric car and instead decided to invest the amount into the business productive line. It is within the interest of business that the two friends decide to partner with Paul who in turn identifies a vibrant franchise opportunity to a Culligan water treatment system where most parts of the business progress undergo initiation. With the increasing pressure and plans to achieve the business targets, the marketing part of the business as illustrated, the case sees the initiative getting integrated to a prominent business Culligan Man, who is a well know a business person. The above idea shows that a business does not come by investing capital alone, but also by motivating the customers that the business is at the interest of the society. Having conceptualized all the entrepreneurial risks, source of the labor force for water treatment plant was sourced from the business owner. The above shows that the owners have a lot of commitment to the realization of the business objectives. The main source of capital for the

Research report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Research report - Essay Example Now-a-days, several organizations within the aerospace manufacturing industry are trying to select Singapore innovation hub for several favourable reasons. Being one of the leading aerospace manufacturing organizations, Rolls-Royce tried to focus on emerging South Asian markets in order to gain potential competitive advantages within this particular industry. The significant growth of the Asian market and effective business opportunities attracted the organizati0ons to develop its manufacturing hub in the emerging Asian Markets. Singapore is one state and one country. The government of Singapore is trying to influence the leading aerospace manufacturing organizations around the globe to invest within the country’s industry as this particular industry is playing a significant role in the economic development of country. The government as well as the policy makers are trying to limit the degree of external environmental challenges in order to attain positive economic growth rate in this particular period of global economic downturn. This essay will discuss about the challenges that are faced by Rolls-Royce in international supply chain management operation. In addition to this, this study will recommend some important facts and concepts that will help the management of the organization to mitigate the associated risks and improve its supply chain management performance in global market place. It is clear that Rolls-Royce has tried to implement several unique strategies in the business operation process in order to maintain its core competency in global market place. Rolls-Royce started to venture in the global aerospace business in the year 1990. Slowly and gradually, the organizations started to expand its business practices in global market places in order to increase its market share. However, it is true that that the organization capitalized several opportunities in the supply chain management processes

Application of Database Developmental Cycle

Application of Database Developmental Cycle Task 1: Apply the database developmental cycle to a given data set or a case of your own Myreadingroom[1.1] details that the database development lifecycle, DDLC, contains six phases: the initial study, the design, implementation and loading, testing and evaluation, operation, and maintenance and evolution. The first phase of the DDLC is the initial study. This involves investigating the companys current solution, determining what is causing it to fail and providing a future solution to resolve the issues, whilst ensuring that it is in the companys capabilities. This can be achieved in four stages: analysing the company, defining the problems and constraints, defining the objectives, and defining the scope and boundaries. To analyse[1.6] is to examine something methodically and in detail. An understanding of what is currently in place helps to decipher the problems and constraints of the current way of working, whilst helping to determine what the companys objectives are. Whilst developing a database there is always an objective[1.7], something planned to be achieved, or there can be several, depending on the requirements. During the initial study consideration should be made as to what the the desired outcome is, as well as the scope and boundaries of the solution. The issue I have been asked to resolve is that there is no way for my client to determine if they have, or want to purchase, a dvd, blu-ray or tv series. The objectives they have defined for the outcome is a fully functional system which allows a users to view and update a media. My client also requires the ability to generate a wish list, as well as view a list of all current media. The solution I have proposed is a Microsoft Access database as there are minor limitations to the system. The only limitation I believe may occur is that the data held may grow to be astronomical so a desktop database application may not be sufficient in the long term. A review should be undertaken throughout the lifecycle of the application to determine if it needs to be transferred to a relational database, hosted on a server. As Access allows you to customise the database to your requirements, my understanding is that there will be no limitations of the data stored. The second phase is the design[1.1]. This is defined as the most crucial phase in the database development lifecycle as this phase revolves around ensuring that the users requirements and objectives are met. If they are disregarded by the system developer, it would ultimately be deemed a failure and the DDLC should commence again. The implementation and loading phase of the database development lifecycle consists of installing the database management system, creating the database and loading, or converting, the data. Installation of the database platform should only occur if it is required. If the platform is already existent, or the install of the database has taken place, creation of the database can occur. The proposed design of the application is a main table which is essentially based on a series of lookups from other tables within the application. This is to ensure data integrity and remove any duplication that may otherwise need to occur. As part of the proposal for the table layout and relationships, consideration should be made as to the performance of the system. Due to Microsoft Access being preinstalled as part of Office, an installation does not need to occur, however creation of the database, designed in the previous phase, is required. The proposed solution for the application is as follows, with each relationship defined utilising a one-to-one relationship[1.8], where a row in one table is linked to one and only one row in another. From there the data needs to be loaded, and possibly manipulated, into the database. As there is no current solution in place a request has been given to my client in order for the main core data to be imported. Once this has been completed, data should be added through the application itself. The third phase, testing and evaluation, consists of testing the solution, tuning the database and finally evaluating the database and its application program. Testing is often referred to as User Acceptance Testing, UAT, in Yorkshire Coast Homes and involves both yourself and the superusers reviewing the system to determine if it is fit for purpose and if navigation throughout is fluid. From there, the system needs amending to introduce any of the anomalies found as part of UAT. My client will undertake the testing of the application which involves ensuring that data is able to be added to system, without any errors or having to go back to any previously accessed fields. In addition to this, they should also review if the application performs adequately and transactions are easily completed without delay. The penultimate phase is operation, which is essentially making the system live and operational. This involves the superusers training any users, within their department, how to use the system to undertake their job role. This results in the application moving from a project state to becoming part of the day to day workings of a department. As my client is going to be the only user of the database at launch, no training needs to occur; and the transition to live should have minimal impact to them as they have worked alongside myself to deliver the application. Throughout the lifecycle of the application being used, maintenance needs to occur and the application needs to evolve as the industry does. This phase is known as maintenance and evolution. Google[1.2] informs that the purpose of system maintenance is to sustain the capability of a system to provide a service. This phase consists of four maintenance types, which will occur as regularly as required. They are periodic, corrective, permissions and adaptive. Periodic maintenance refers to something of a regular occurrence. For example, in Yorkshire Coast Homes, the main housing system has a regular nightly queue which imports any monies received from customers and processes each night, alongside abandoning any no longer required repairs. Another example of periodic maintenance, which should occur in any organisation, is a backup[1.3], the copying and archiving of computer data so it may be used to restore the original after a data loss event. These can occur as regularly as an organisation requires. Periodic maintenance is partnered with corrective maintenance. This is most commonly known as recovery[1.4], the process of salvaging inaccessible data which has been lost, corrupt, damaged or formatted. As a database administrator you must always be prepared to restore any loss of data for any user, however this form of maintenance should only occur as and when required. The permissions element of maintenance consists of three aspects: adding, amending, removing and reviewing. Each aspect of the permissions are closely linked as a user may change job roles, requiring the adding or removing of permissions, or a third party decision may require a change. An example of where this has occurred in Yorkshire Coast Homes is access to tenants rent accounts. As part of a historic decision, everyone within the organisation had access to the rent account. Following a change in the law, users permissions were removed so that those who can access it are only those who require it within their job role, whether it be for informing a tenant of their rent, chasing any arrears or for IT to support any technical issues. The final maintenance type is adaptive. This is the process of adding features to the current system, or enhancing it. This can also be referred to as evolution. This is the process of the system evolving throughout time as either an organisation, or the technology utilised, advances. An example of where this has occurred in Yorkshire Coast Homes is our Total Mobile solution[1.5], a digital workforce management solution. We recently upgraded to the latest version of software, as the version we were previously running was old technology, which didnt support Android. Through the final phase of DDLC for the Media Database, the periodic maintenance that should occur is the copying of the database. This is to provide a recovery point in the event of data corruption or loss of data. Both the permissions element and adaptive maintenance have limited impact on the application. Currently only one user accesses and updates data, however periodic reviews should be undertaken to determine if my client requires further users to have access. From there, adaptive maintenance may need to occur to lock down certain parts of the system my client may not want users to access. In addition to this, Microsoft may upgrade the Access application which may potentially corrupt or remove a functionality currently used within the application. Reviews should be undertaken to determine if an upgrade to a new version of Access may corrupt the application. If a decision is made to undertake an upgrade, the DDLC lifecycle should commence again. Task 2b: Evaluate the effectiveness of the database solution and suggests methods of improvement My client asked me to produce a fully functional system which allows users to view and update a media. The solution I proposed was a Microsoft Access database which utilised relationships and joins, rather than duplicating data. The first objective, a fully functional system which allows a users to view and update a media, has been achieved utilising the Media Information form. As you can see from the screen print below the form details the title of the media, the media type and category. It also includes the purchase information and the genre(s). The second and third objective are closely related as my client requested the ability to generate a wish list, as well as view a list of all current media. This information can be accessed from the main form, as you can see from the print screen below. When selecting either the Wish List or Purchased icon the following report appears, detailing the information. As each of the objectives have been achieved, with the addition of my client being able to access sold media, I would deem the development of the database a success. One factor within applications that should always be considered is performance[2b.2], how well something works. There are three elements that I would deem beneficial to the applications performance. These are the storing of data, the navigation and functionality. When defining the tables and relationships in the design phase of the database development lifecycle, I ensured that the data is stored with a series of joins, rather than duplicated data. This data is then collated in a query and presented in a form to provide the information required to my client. This ensures data integrity[2b.1], the assurance of the accuracy and consistency of data. It also enables the end user to access the information required without having to navigate throughout the whole of the system. The application also benefits from having a limited number of ways to access the data. Providing the information required in one form, and a few reports, provides consistent information. As well as all of the information being provided, the inputting of information is simplistic as when entering data and moving through each field, it navigates in a top to bottom method rather than a muddled method. In addition to navigation through the form, navigation through the application is simple also. Each report and form has been provided with an exit icon, as well as the form having a create, save and delete button. These are controlled by macros. The macros have also been created in a managed way as rather than having multiple macros in one location, they are all their own macro. This removes the need for a triggered action to search a long macro before undertaking it, saving time and increasing performance. As well as successes in the system there are also failures[2b.3], the state or condition of not meeting a desirable or intended object. There are two failures which have simple resolutions. There are inputting data into the data dictionary form and the search functionality. In order for information to be entered into the data dictionary, the superuser must bypass the initial launch to display the tables. From there information can be entered into both of the data dictionary tables in order to update the related query. There are two issues with this method: firstly, having to enter data in both tables separately, and secondly, there is no password protection so anyone can update the tables. The solution for this issue would be to create an input form which its sole purpose would be to update the data dictionary. In addition to this, the form can be password protected so that only users with the password can update information. The second, and final issue, is the search functionality. As the database has minimal information currently, the only search available in the system is the one provided by Microsoft Access. As more information is entered, the harder it will be to locate the required media. The recommendation for this issue would be to provide a search option on the home screen with the ability to query any value within the database which may need to be updated, such as returning a list of wish list items. Although there is currently a report in the system available, this does not provide the ability to update the data. A form would be required for this. To conclude, the application is fit for purpose and meets the objectives defined by my client. However, there are some minor failures of the system which can be easily addressed. Task 2c: Provide supporting user and technical documentation Supporting your system The Media Information database is a desktop application database developed within the application Access, which is both provided and supported by Microsoft. Any issues relating to the core application is supported until Microsoft decide to cease cover, which is currently set to be October 2020[2c.1]. In the event support has expired, you can quite simply convert to the latest version of Access. In order to do this, make a copy of the database so you dont corrupt the information. With the copied database open, select File, Save As. Select the Save as type drop down menu and change it to the latest version. Ensure full testing is undertaken so that you know that functionality has not been lost, including adding new media types or genres. From there, you are able to delete, or archive, the previous database version. **Please note: DO NOT delete the previous database until testing has been completed, as it may result in corruption of your data** Overview The database provided is referred to as the Media Information database. It is a series of tables which logs whether a media type is owned, the format, genre, and many other things. Upon launch of the application, the following screen is displayed: This screen allows the user to navigate through the system. An exit application button is also provided to close the database. Upon selecting the Media Information icon the following screen is displayed: The main screen details the media title and any information held regarding it, including the status of purchase. Along the bottom pain, there is the ability to navigate throughout the records. In addition to this, the user has the ability to create, save and delete records. A Close button is also provided to return to the home screen. A number of blue boxes open the listed report for the user to peruse. Each report which opens correlates to the title detailed on each icon. The report displayed will look similar to this: As you can see from the screen above, there is also a Close button provided. This is available on each report to navigate back to the home screen. The final icon on the home screen is Data Dictionary. This report details, the table name, a description, what fields are included and the data type. The information is displayed as follows: Maintaining the database Throughout the lifecycle of a database, review and development must occur to determine if it is still fit for purpose. As a result, additional fields or tables may be added. If this is required there are a few things which need to be considered or remembered: The database is currently set up to provide lookups rather than having to manually enter information. This is the preferred method for data integrity. There are multiple relationships defined, detailed below You must remember to update the Data Dictionary tables Adding fields or tables is easily achievable through the backend, which can be accessed from the left hand panel of the application. The current tables in use are as follows: The core tables begin with Media, whereas those which help provide the Data Dictionary, begin with Data Dictionary. If you want to add additional tables into the system, try to add tables with a lookup to the original database. In order to do this, create your table with a primary unique key and the columns required. Then add the lookup column into the required table. For future reference, the database as it currently stands is configured like this: The main tables included and the relationships defined B) The data dictionary tables and the relationships defined Functionality help As part of the configuration for the forms and reports, there are a series of macros enabled which allow fluid interactions throughout the application, without having to exit it completely. These are the macros that are currently in use: When creating macros, ensure that a user friendly name is assigned to enable yourself, and support, to easily determine what it is for as a later date. This can easily be done by selecting the Properties of the tab and creating a description in the Caption field. This will ensure that it is displayed correctly in the macro overview window. In some instances, there may be things you dont know. As Office is one of the market leaders, there are many forums and online help sites available for use. The sites I would recommend are https://support.office.com/en-gb/access and https://answers.microsoft.com/en-us/msoffice/forum/msoffice_access?auth=1. If these sites do not provide the solution, Youtube is always an alternative or a Google search. References: [1.1] http://www.myreadingroom.co.in/notes-and-studymaterial/65-dbms/506-database-development-life-cycle.html [1.2] https://www.google.co.uk/search?ei=QbCXWN_AL4vQgAaC57GQDAq=system+maintenanceoq=syatem+maintenancegs_l=mobile-gws-serp.1.2.0i13k1l5.11736.12598.0.14403.8.8.0.0.0.0.149.897.1j6.7.0.01c.1j4.64.mobile-gws-serp..4.4.54735i39k1j0i7i30k1.g8bS8KwNeBs [1.3] https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup [1.4] https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_recovery [1.5] https://www.totalmobile.co.uk [1.6] https://www.google.co.uk/search?client=tablet-android-googleei=ZOaYWMLKJcLCwATvz5bwDAq=analyseoq=analysegs_l=mobile-gws-serp.3..0l5.14074.14927.0.15108.8.8.0.3.3.0.149.769.6j2.8.0.01c.1.64.mobile-gws-serp..1.7.466.3..41j0i131k1j0i67k1.uUVjfA3KtLw [1.7] https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/objective [1.8] http://www.databaseprimer.com/pages/relationship_1to1/ [2b.1] https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrity [2b.2] http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/performance [2b.3] https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure [2c.1] https://support.microsoft.com/en-gb/lifecycle?p1=13615

An Analysis of William Carlos Williams Poem, The Young Housewife Essay

An Analysis of William Carlos Williams' Poem, The Young Housewife In this poem, Williams uses a series of images to capture a fleeting moment in time, an emotion of admiration and desire. The poem consists of three stanzas of varying length, and each share in a similar method in portraying the woman and the narrator's relationship with her. Each stanza starts out with somewhat broad statements about the scene, and as they each progress, they become more specific until the image is pinned down to a specific moment in time. After reading the poem the reader is left with three separate images, which describe the emotion/admiration felt by the narrator for the woman. Williams in the first stanza gives the reader a glimpse of the woman in "her husband's house". His description is somewhat voyeuristic, as the woman is in her negligee behind walls, and yet the reader is still able to see her. The poet also tells us the exact time, ten A.M.. This suggests that the woman while still in her negligee, is in no rush to prepare herself for the day. This is import...

Othello Betryal

betryal othello Question:Examine the role of love and betrayal in the play? Othello is one of the many brilliant plays, which capture hearts of a wide audience, written by the great author William Shakespeare. This play is considered to be one of Shakespeare’s excellent pieces of writing based on tragedies, up to date. The play unfolds with themes such as romance, love which eventually ends in betrayal, tragedy, agony, which makes the Othello a wonderful play to discuss. What is love?How Shakespeare illustrates delicately the qualities of love as tolerance, compassion, kindness, sensitiveness, happiness and sadness within different characters in the play. What is betrayal? How Shakespeare portrays the theme of betrayal by changing the love into mistrust and misunderstanding which finally leads to hatred and untimely death of compassionate lovers. It is interesting to know how both themes together create a brilliant play of tragedy. With in all the themes blended in the play â €Å"Othello†, Love is a theme that is very much evident to the wide audience of Shakespeare plays.Like in other stories of Shakespeare, â€Å"Othello† speaks of love by using main characters to influence the audience with the idea of love. Greatest love of all characters is shown by Desdemona the honest and truthful wife of Othello. Desdemona, because of the love and trust she has on Othello chooses to leave her dad, to lead a happy life with the love of her life. â€Å"I do perceive here a divided duty. To you I am bound for life and education; My life and education both do learn me How to respect you. You are the lord of duty; I am hitherto your daughter.But here’s my husband, And so much duty as my mother showed To you, preferring you before her father, So much I challenge, that I may profess due to the Moor my lord† (758). The love Desdemona has for her husband makes her hide the truth about her missing handkerchief because she was well aware that Oth ello will be hurt to know the truth. Love and passion Othello has towards Desdemona are shown in many parts of the play. Overflowing love that Othello has towards Desdemona creates jealousy and in return causes the death of Desdemona.Unconditional love that Othello has for Desdemona is clearly shown when he kills himself after the death of his lover. â€Å"I kissed thee ere I killed thee. No way but this, Killing myself, to die upon a kiss† (858). The love Desdemona has for Othello was not shaken till her last breath even though Othello’s love for Desdemona is corrupted by jealousy. Roderigo another brilliant character who is enticed by the emotion of love goes to an extent of killing others because of the love he has towards Desdemona.One other relationship of love and friendship is seen between Emilia and Desdemona. Emilia stands up for Desdemona, her innocent mistress, to prove her innocence by bringing her husband’s bad deeds to the sight of Othello. Even th ough Emilia steals her mistress’s handkerchief because of her love towards her husband, she ends up standing up for her loving mistress. Iago uses love as a source of advantage to gain success in revenge. He fakes love as a friend to Cassio, Rodrigo, as a husband to Emilia for his own benefit.Iago’s idea of love is control. â€Å"It is merely a lust of the blood and a permission of the will. † (763). He uses people’s affections towards love as a weapon to create a friction between characters which eventually leads to betrayal. One element that is often pointed out by Shakespeare in the play is betrayal. Iago a well known character plays the center role in most betrayals that’s taking place in the play. The character Iago is addressed as honest Iago. â€Å"Iago is most honest† (Shakespeare 2. 3. 777).Even though he is known to be honest he uses everyone’s trust against them and plants fake ideas which crate conflicts. Iago, jealous of Cassio who is second in command to Othello, gets Cassio drunk and brings shame on him in the presence of Othello. Roderigo is a person who can be tricked easily; this fact gives Iago a chance to create hatred between Roderigo and Othello. Iago is convinced that Roderigo is in love Desdemona so he creates friction between Roderigo and Othello with the idea of Othello mistreating Desdemona.Above all Othello is being betrayed by Iago in numerous parts of the play. Iago’s jealousy towards Othello’s position as a great general, Iago develops rude intentions of getting revenge by running Othello’s reputation, then creating doubts in Othello’s heart about his dear wife Desdemona. Othello being fooled and manipulated by Iago, convinced Desdemona’s love is fake, end up murdering his innocent wife. â€Å"I follow him to serve my turn upon him† (Shakespeare 1. 1. 44:742).However, even though Iago plays an important part in the play, all the other chara cters play a role of betrayal at some point or the other. Emalia who is playing the character of Iago’s wife betrays her husband by telling Othello that she stole the handkerchief for her husband, which eventually leads to the death of both Emalia and Iago. â€Å"O thou dull Moor! That handkerchief thou speak’st of I found by fortune and did give my husband; For often, with a solemn earnestness, More than indeed belonged to such a trifle, He begged of me to steal ‘t† (853).The character Desdemona who is known to be innocent, sweet wife of Othello betrays her husband by hiding the fact that she lost the handkerchief, making her husband suspect her more on the fact that she is having an affair with Cassio. â€Å"It is not lost; but what an if it were? † (Shakespeare 3. 4. 809). â€Å"Fetch me the handkerchief! My mind misgives† (Shakespeare 3. 4. 809). The biggest betrayal is somehow caused by Othello by blindly trusting evil Iago and not liste ning to his loving, truthful wife, which causes most of the deaths in the play.Trusting the wrong person and reacting to certain situations without thinking can lead to great tragedy which Shakespeare the great writer has depicted in the play â€Å"Othello†. As mentioned in the introduction the theme love is a combination of various different factors. At the beginning Shakespeare leaves a question mark within the audience as to what love is. After a throw analysis, Desdemona and Othello’s love seems as innocent, romantic love fails because of the lack of a strong foundation of trust, communication which causes romantic love eventually turns into a love of profane. Othello Betryal betryal othello Question:Examine the role of love and betrayal in the play? Othello is one of the many brilliant plays, which capture hearts of a wide audience, written by the great author William Shakespeare. This play is considered to be one of Shakespeare’s excellent pieces of writing based on tragedies, up to date. The play unfolds with themes such as romance, love which eventually ends in betrayal, tragedy, agony, which makes the Othello a wonderful play to discuss. What is love?How Shakespeare illustrates delicately the qualities of love as tolerance, compassion, kindness, sensitiveness, happiness and sadness within different characters in the play. What is betrayal? How Shakespeare portrays the theme of betrayal by changing the love into mistrust and misunderstanding which finally leads to hatred and untimely death of compassionate lovers. It is interesting to know how both themes together create a brilliant play of tragedy. With in all the themes blended in the play â €Å"Othello†, Love is a theme that is very much evident to the wide audience of Shakespeare plays.Like in other stories of Shakespeare, â€Å"Othello† speaks of love by using main characters to influence the audience with the idea of love. Greatest love of all characters is shown by Desdemona the honest and truthful wife of Othello. Desdemona, because of the love and trust she has on Othello chooses to leave her dad, to lead a happy life with the love of her life. â€Å"I do perceive here a divided duty. To you I am bound for life and education; My life and education both do learn me How to respect you. You are the lord of duty; I am hitherto your daughter.But here’s my husband, And so much duty as my mother showed To you, preferring you before her father, So much I challenge, that I may profess due to the Moor my lord† (758). The love Desdemona has for her husband makes her hide the truth about her missing handkerchief because she was well aware that Oth ello will be hurt to know the truth. Love and passion Othello has towards Desdemona are shown in many parts of the play. Overflowing love that Othello has towards Desdemona creates jealousy and in return causes the death of Desdemona.Unconditional love that Othello has for Desdemona is clearly shown when he kills himself after the death of his lover. â€Å"I kissed thee ere I killed thee. No way but this, Killing myself, to die upon a kiss† (858). The love Desdemona has for Othello was not shaken till her last breath even though Othello’s love for Desdemona is corrupted by jealousy. Roderigo another brilliant character who is enticed by the emotion of love goes to an extent of killing others because of the love he has towards Desdemona.One other relationship of love and friendship is seen between Emilia and Desdemona. Emilia stands up for Desdemona, her innocent mistress, to prove her innocence by bringing her husband’s bad deeds to the sight of Othello. Even th ough Emilia steals her mistress’s handkerchief because of her love towards her husband, she ends up standing up for her loving mistress. Iago uses love as a source of advantage to gain success in revenge. He fakes love as a friend to Cassio, Rodrigo, as a husband to Emilia for his own benefit.Iago’s idea of love is control. â€Å"It is merely a lust of the blood and a permission of the will. † (763). He uses people’s affections towards love as a weapon to create a friction between characters which eventually leads to betrayal. One element that is often pointed out by Shakespeare in the play is betrayal. Iago a well known character plays the center role in most betrayals that’s taking place in the play. The character Iago is addressed as honest Iago. â€Å"Iago is most honest† (Shakespeare 2. 3. 777).Even though he is known to be honest he uses everyone’s trust against them and plants fake ideas which crate conflicts. Iago, jealous of Cassio who is second in command to Othello, gets Cassio drunk and brings shame on him in the presence of Othello. Roderigo is a person who can be tricked easily; this fact gives Iago a chance to create hatred between Roderigo and Othello. Iago is convinced that Roderigo is in love Desdemona so he creates friction between Roderigo and Othello with the idea of Othello mistreating Desdemona.Above all Othello is being betrayed by Iago in numerous parts of the play. Iago’s jealousy towards Othello’s position as a great general, Iago develops rude intentions of getting revenge by running Othello’s reputation, then creating doubts in Othello’s heart about his dear wife Desdemona. Othello being fooled and manipulated by Iago, convinced Desdemona’s love is fake, end up murdering his innocent wife. â€Å"I follow him to serve my turn upon him† (Shakespeare 1. 1. 44:742).However, even though Iago plays an important part in the play, all the other chara cters play a role of betrayal at some point or the other. Emalia who is playing the character of Iago’s wife betrays her husband by telling Othello that she stole the handkerchief for her husband, which eventually leads to the death of both Emalia and Iago. â€Å"O thou dull Moor! That handkerchief thou speak’st of I found by fortune and did give my husband; For often, with a solemn earnestness, More than indeed belonged to such a trifle, He begged of me to steal ‘t† (853).The character Desdemona who is known to be innocent, sweet wife of Othello betrays her husband by hiding the fact that she lost the handkerchief, making her husband suspect her more on the fact that she is having an affair with Cassio. â€Å"It is not lost; but what an if it were? † (Shakespeare 3. 4. 809). â€Å"Fetch me the handkerchief! My mind misgives† (Shakespeare 3. 4. 809). The biggest betrayal is somehow caused by Othello by blindly trusting evil Iago and not liste ning to his loving, truthful wife, which causes most of the deaths in the play.Trusting the wrong person and reacting to certain situations without thinking can lead to great tragedy which Shakespeare the great writer has depicted in the play â€Å"Othello†. As mentioned in the introduction the theme love is a combination of various different factors. At the beginning Shakespeare leaves a question mark within the audience as to what love is. After a throw analysis, Desdemona and Othello’s love seems as innocent, romantic love fails because of the lack of a strong foundation of trust, communication which causes romantic love eventually turns into a love of profane.

key issues essays

key issues essays President George Bush and Senator John Kerry are the two key running mates for this years race to the White House. Bush and Kerry differ on many issues, some big and some small. They differ on how the economy should be handled, energy and environmental issues, health care matters, national security, and education standards. Comparing these issues may help you decide how you this fall. The President has repeatedly called on Congress to make his tax cuts permanent, saying failure to do so would amount to a tax hike and threaten the economy in generating new jobs. He believes that speeding up the tax cuts will increase the pace of economic recovery and job creation. He wants to provide dividend and capitol gains tax relief to give small business incentives to grow. He proposes that each state will receive $20 billion in aid for these services. John Kerry on the other hand has different views. To pay for broad health care reform, Kerry has called for repeal of the Bush tax cuts for Americans earning more than $200,000 a year. However, he would keep the tax cuts for the middle class. He says he can cut the half-trillion dollar budget by the end of a four year term, even while spending $72 billion a year to extend health care to 27 million of the 40-plus million uninsured (www.wesh.com). Energy and Environmental issues also show differences between the candidates. President Bush believes the threat of global warming should be addressed through new economic growth and efficiency. He also favors drilling for oil in Alaskas Artic National Wildlife refuge, and he supports to reduce air pollution and acid rain by a proposed budget of $1.7 billion to develop hydrogen-powered fuel cells. Bush also supports more domestic oil, natural gas, and coal production. He also wants to increase logging in national forests as a way to prevent forest fires. Kerry favors U.S. participation in an international climate change program to curb glob...

Public Health Essays

Public Health Essays Public Health Paper Public Health Paper Public health is the science and art of protecting and improving the health of communities through education, promotion of healthy lifestyles, and research for disease and injury prevention. Public health is concerned with protecting the health of entire populations. These populations can be as small as a local neighborhood, or as big as an entire country. Public health can make a difference in the lives of tens, hundreds, and even thousands or millions. Public health program is very important beause these are some of the threats to our health that we will be facing in the years to come such as avian influenza, HIV/AIDS, obesity, cancer, bioterrorism, domestic violence, substance abuse, mental health, drug resistant diseases, emerging and re-emerging diseases, environmental toxins, inequities in health care access and manymore. Most experts agree that these problems cant be tackled with new medical findings or cures; it is up to public health to protect us from these threats. Seeing the health problems such as highly increasing of disease prevalence, public health offers the best solution program because public health is a very diverse and dynamic field incorporating many disciplines that consist of biology, sociology, mathematics, anthropology, public policy, computer science, business, environmental science, communications, etc. 2. 1 Early public health interventions o 2. 2 Modern public health + 2. 2. 1 Public Health 2. 0 * 3 Education and training o 3. 1 Schools of public health o 3. 2 Degrees in public health * 4 Public health programs o 4. 1 Applications in healthcare * 5 See also * 6 References * 7 Further reading * 8 External links [edit] Objectives The focus of a public health intervention is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors, communities and environments. Many diseases are preventable through simple, non-medical methods. For example, research has shown that the simple act of hand washing with soap can prevent many contagious diseases. [4] In other cases, treating a disease or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing its spread to others, such as during an outbreak of infectious disease, or contamination of food or water supplies. Public health communications programs, vaccination programs, and distribution of condoms are examples of common public health measures. Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and non-governmental organizations. The World Health Organization (WHO) is the international agency that coordinates and acts on global public health issues. Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, to respond to domestic health issues. For example in the United States, the front line of public health initiatives are state and local health departments. The United States Public Health Service (PHS), led by the Surgeon General of the United States, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, headquartered in Atlanta, are involved with several international health activities, in addition to their national duties. In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada is the national agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response, and infectious and chronic disease control and prevention. In India, the Public Health Foundation of India was launched in 2006 as a response to growing concern over the emerging public health challenges in that country. There is a vast discrepancy in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed nations and developing nations. In the developing world, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained health workers or monetary resources to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. [5] As a result, a large majority of disease and mortality in the developing world results from and contributes to extreme poverty. For example, many African governments spend less than USD$10 per person per year on health care, while, in the United States, the federal government spent approximately USD$4,500 per capita in 2000. [edit] History of public health In some ways, public health is a modern concept, although it has roots in antiquity. From the beginnings of human civilization, it was recognized that polluted water and lack of proper waste disposal spread communicable diseases (theory of miasma). Early religions attempted to regulate behavior that specifically related to health, from types of food eaten, to regulating certain indulgent behaviors, such as drinking alcohol or sexual relations. The establishment of governments placed responsibility on leaders to develop public health policies and programs in order to gain some understanding of the causes of disease and thus ensure social stability prosperity, and maintain order. The term healthy city used by todays public health advocates reflects this ongoing challenge to collective physical well-being that results from crowded conditions and urbanization. [edit] Early public health interventions Public health nursing made available through child welfare services in U. S. (c. 1930s) By Roman times, it was well understood that proper diversion of human waste was a necessary tenet of public health in urban areas. The Chinese developed the practice of variolation following a smallpox epidemic around 1000 BC. An individual without the disease could gain some measure of immunity against it by inhaling the dried crusts that formed around lesions of infected individuals. Also, children were protected by inoculating a scratch on their forearms with the pus from a lesion. This practice was not documented in the West until the early-18th century, and was used on a very limited basis. The practice of vaccination did not become prevalent until the 1820s, following the work of Edward Jenner to treat smallpox. During the 14th century Black Death in Europe, it was believed that removing bodies of the dead would further prevent the spread of the bacterial infection. This did little to stem the plague, however, which was most likely spread by rodent-borne fleas. Burning parts of cities resulted in much greater benefit, since it destroyed the rodent infestations. The development of quarantine in the medieval period helped mitigate the effects of other infectious diseases. However, according to Michel Foucault, the plague model of governmentality was later controverted by the cholera model. A Cholera pandemic devastated Europe between 1829 and 1851, and was first fought by the use of what Foucault called social medicine, which focused on flux, circulation of air, location of cemeteries, etc. All those concerns, born of the miasma theory of disease, were mixed with urbanistic concerns for the management of populations, which Foucault designated as the concept of biopower. The German conceptualized this in the Polizeiwissenschaft (Science of police). The science of epidemiology was founded by John Snows identification of a polluted public water well as the source of an 1854 cholera outbreak in London. Dr. Snow believed in the germ theory of disease as opposed to the prevailing miasma theory. Although miasma theory correctly teaches that disease is a result of poor sanitation, it was based upon the prevailing theory of spontaneous generation. Germ theory developed slowly: despite Anton van Leeuwenhoeks observations of Microorganisms, (which are now known to cause many of the most common infectious diseases) in the year 1680, the modern era of public health did not begin until the 1880s, with Louis Pasteurs germ theory and production of artificial vaccines. Other public health interventions include latrinization, the building of sewers, the regular collection of garbage followed by incineration or disposal in a landfill, providing clean water and draining standing water to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes. This contribution was made by Edwin Chadwick in 1843 who published a report on the sanitation of the working class population in Great Britain at the time. So began the inception of the modern public health. The industrial revolution had initially caused the spread of disease through large conurbations around workhouses and factories. These settlements were cramped and primitive and there was no organised sanitation. Disease was inevitable and its incubation in these areas was encouraged by the poor lifestyle of the inhabitants. [edit] Modern public health With the onset of the epidemiological transition and as the prevalence of infectious diseases decreased through the 20th century, public health began to put more focus on chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Previous efforts in many developed countries had already led to dramatic reductions in the infant mortality rate using preventative methods. For instance in the United States, public health worker Dr. Sara Josephine Baker established many programs to help the poor in New York City keep their infants healthy, leading teams of nurses into the crowded neighborhoods of Hells Kitchen and teaching mothers how to dress, feed, and bathe their babies. During the 20th century and early in the next, the dramatic increase in average life span is widely credited to public health achievements, such as vaccination programs and control of many infectious diseases including polio, diphtheria, yellow fever and smallpox; effective health and safety policies such as road traffic safety and occupational safety; improved family planning; tobacco control measures; and programs designed to decrease non-communicable diseases by acting on known risk factors such as a persons background, lifestyle and environment. One of the major sources of the increase in average life span in the early 20th century was the decline in the urban penalty brought on by improvements in sanitation. These improvements included chlorination of drinking water, filtration and sewage treatment which led to the decline in deaths caused by infectious waterborne diseases such as cholera and intestinal diseases. In Cutler and Millers, The Role of Public Health Improvements in Health Advances, they display evidence of the decline in typhoid fever deaths in Chicago, Baltimore, Cincinnati, and Cleveland after these American cities adopted chlorination, filtration, or a sewage improvement. [6] Meanwhile, large parts of the developing world remained plagued by largely preventable/treatable infectious diseases and poor maternal and child health outcomes, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. The WHO reports that a lack of exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life contributes to over a million avoidable child deaths each year. [7] Intermittent preventive therapy aimed at treating and preventing malaria episodes among pregnant women and young children is one public health measure in endemic countries. Front-page headlines continue to present society with public health issues on a daily basis: emerging infectious diseases such as SARS, making its way from China (see Public health in China) to Canada, the United States and other geographically distant countries; reducing inequities in health care access through publicly funded health insurance programs; the HIV/AIDS pandemic and its spread from certain high-risk groups to the general population in many countries, such as in South Africa; The increase of childhood obesity and the concomitant increase in type II diabetes among  children; the social, economic and health impacts of adolescent pregnancy; and the ongoing public health challenges related to natural disasters such as the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, 2005s Hurricane Katrina in the United States and the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Since the 1980s, the growing field of population health has broadened the focus of public health from individual behaviors and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality, poverty, and education. Modern public health is often concerned with addressing determinants of health across a population. There is a recognition that our health is affected by many factors including where we live, genetics, our income, our educational status and our social relationships these are known as social determinants of health. A social gradient in health runs through society, with those that are poorest generally suffering the worst health. However even those in the middle classes will generally have worse health outcomes than those of a higher social stratum. [8] The new public health seeks to address these health inequalities by advocating for population-based policies that improve health in an equitable manner. [edit] Public Health 2. 0 Public Health 2. 0 is the term given to a movement within public health that aims to make the field more accessible to the general public and more user-driven. There are three senses in which the term Public Health 2. 0 is used. In the first sense, Public Health 2. 0 is similar to the term Health 2. 0 and is used to describe the ways in which traditional public health practitioners and institutions are reaching out (or could reach out) to the public through social media. [9][10] In the second sense, Public Health 2.0 is used to describe public health research that uses data gathered from social networking sites, search engine queries, cell phones, or other technologies. [11] In the third sense, Public Health 2. 0 is used to describe public health activities that are completely user-driven. [12] An example this type of Public Health 2. 0 is the collection and sharing of information about environmental radiation levels following the March 2011 tsunami in Japan. [13] In all cases, Public Health 2. 0 draws on ideas from Web 2. 0, such as crowdsourcing, information sharing, and user-centred design. [14] [edit] Education and training Education and training of public health professionals is available throughout the world in Medical Schools, Schools of Public Health, and Schools of Public Affairs. The training typically requires a university degree with a focus on core disciplines of biostatistics, epidemiology, health services administration, health policy, health education, behavioral science and environmental health. [15][16] Many other programs, such as in nursing or dietetics, include some public health content even if not specifically designed to prepare for a profession in public health. [edit] Schools of public health In the United States, the Welch-Rose Report of 1915 has been viewed as the basis for the critical movement in the history of the institutional schism between public health and medicine because it led to the establishment of schools of public health supported by the Rockefeller Foundation. [17][18] The report was authored by William Welch, founding dean of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, and Wycliffe Rose of the Rockefeller Foundation. The report focused more on research than practical education. [17][19] Some have blamed the Rockefeller Foundations 1916 decision to support the establishment of schools of public health for creating the schism between public health and medicine and legitimizing the rift between medicines laboratory investigation of the mechanisms of disease and public healths nonclinical concern with environmental and social influences on health and wellness. [17][20] Even though schools of public health had already been established in Canada, Europe and North Africa, the US had still maintained the traditional system of housing faculties of public health within their medical institutions. However, a year following the Welch-Rose report, the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health was founded in 1916. By 1922, schools of public health were established in Columbia, Harvard and Yale universities. By 1999 there were twenty nine schools of public health in the US, enrolling around fifteen thousand students. [17][15] Over the years, the types of students and training provided have also changed. In the beginning, students who enrolled in public health schools typically had already obtained a medical degree; public health school training was largely a second degree for medical professionals. However, in 1978, 69% of American students enrolled in public health schools had only a bachelors degree. [15] [edit] Degrees in public health Main article: Professional degrees of public health Schools of public health offer a variety of degrees which generally fall into two categories: professional or academic. [21] The two major postgraduate professional degrees are the Master of Public Health (MPH) or the Master of Science in Public Health (MSPH). Doctoral studies in this field include Doctor of Public Health (DrPH) and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in a subspeciality of greater Public Health disciplines. DrPH is regarded as a professional leadership degree and PhD is more an academic degree. Professional degrees are oriented towards practice in public health settings. The Master of Public Health, Doctor of Public Health, Doctor of Health Science (DHSc) and the Master of Health Care Administration are examples of degrees which are geared towards people who want careers as practitioners of public health in health departments, managed care and community-based organizations, hospitals and consulting firms among others. Master of Public Health degrees broadly fall into two categories, those that put more emphasis on an understanding of epidemiology and statistics as the scientific basis of public health practice and those that include a more eclectic range of methodologies. A Master of Science of Public Health is similar to an MPH but is considered an academic degree (as opposed to a professional degree) and places more emphasis on quantitative methods and research. The same distinction can be made between the DrPH and the DHSc. The DrPH is considered a professional degree and the DHSc is an academic degree. Academic degrees are more oriented towards those with interests in the scientific basis of public health and preventive medicine who wish to pursue careers in research, university teaching in graduate programs, policy analysis and development, and other highs of academic degrees are the Master of Science, Doctor of Philosophy, Doctor of Science (ScD), and Doctor of Health Science (DHSc). The doctoral programs are distinct from the MPH and other professional programs by the addition of advanced coursework and the nature and scope of a dissertation research project. In the United States, the Association of Schools of Public Health[22] represents Council on Education for Public Health (CEPH) accredited schools of public health. [23] Delta Omega is the honorary society for graduate studies in public health. The society was founded in 1924 at the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health. Currently, there are approximately 68 chapters throughout the United States and Puerto Rico. [24] [edit] Public health programs Today, most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence disease, disability, and the effects of aging and other physical and mental health conditions, although public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. [25] In recent years, public health programs providing vaccinations have made incredible strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox, a disease that plagued humanity for thousands of years. The World Health Organization (WHO) identifies core functions of public health programs including:[26] * providing leadership on matters critical to health and engaging in partnerships where joint action is needed; * shaping a research agenda and stimulating the generation, translation and dissemination of valuable knowledge; * setting norms and standards and promoting and monitoring their implementation; * articulating ethical and evidence-based policy options; * monitoring the health situation and assessing health trends. In particular, public health surveillance programs can:[27] * serve as an early warning system for impending public health emergencies; * document the impact of an intervention, or track progress towards specified goals; and * monitor and clarify the epidemiology of health problems, allow priorities to be set, and inform health policy and strategies. Public health surveillance has led to the identification and prioritization of many public health issues facing the world today, including HIV/AIDS, diabetes, waterborne diseases, zoonotic diseases, and antibiotic resistance leading to the reemergence of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis. Antibiotic resistance, also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011. For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people worldwide suffer from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by the year 2030. [28] In a June 2010 editorial in the medical journal The Lancet, the authors opined that The fact that type 2 diabetes, a largely preventable disorder, has reached epidemic proportion is a public health humiliation. [29] The risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity. The WHO’s latest estimates highlighted that globally approximately 1. 5 billion adults were overweight in 2008, and nearly 43 million children under the age of five were overweight in 2010. [30] The United States is the leading country with 30. 6% of its population being obese. Mexico follows behind with 24. 2% and the United Kingdom with 23%. Once considered a problem in high-income countries, it is now on the rise in low-income countries, especially in urban settings. Many public health programs are increasingly dedicating attention and resources to the issue of obesity, with objectives to address the underlying causes including healthy diet and physical exercise. Some programs and policies associated with public health promotion and prevention can be controversial. One such example is programs focusing on the prevention of HIV transmission through safe sex campaigns and needle-exchange programmes. Another is the control of tobacco smoking. Changing smoking behavior requires long term strategies, unlike the fight against communicable diseases which usually takes a shorter period for effects to be observed. Many nations have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places. Proponents argue by presenting evidence that smoking is one of the major killers, and that therefore governments have a duty to reduce the death rate, both through limiting passive (second-hand) smoking and by providing fewer opportunities for people to smoke. Opponents say that this undermines individual freedom and personal responsibility, and worry that the state may be emboldened to remove more and more choice in the name of better population health overall. Simultaneously, while communicable diseases have historically ranged uppermost as a global health priority, non-communicable diseases and the underlying behavior-related risk factors have been at the bottom. This is changing however, as illustrated by the United Nations hosting its first General Assembly Special Summit on the issue of non-communicable diseases in September 2011. [31] [edit] Applications in healthcare As well as seeking to improve population health through the implementation of specific population-level interventions, public health contributes to medical care by identifying and assessing population needs for health care services, including:[32][33][34][35] * Assessing current services and evaluating whether they are meeting the objectives of the health care system * Ascertaining requirements as expressed by health professionals, the public and other stakeholders * Identifying the most appropriate interventions * Considering the effect on resources for proposed interventions and assessing their cost-effectiveness * Supporting decision making in health care and planning health services including any necessary changes. [edit] See also Nuvola apps package favorite. svg Health and fitness portal * Behavioral medicine * Diseases of affluence / Diseases of poverty * Environmental epidemiology * Environmental health * Epidemiology * Global health * Global Mental Health * Health care delivery * Health care providers * Health profession * List of preventable causes of death * National public health institutes * Public health journals * Public health law * Universal health care * World Health Report

Organizational Development & Human Resources Term Paper

Organizational Development & Human Resources - Term Paper Example As such, the topics which will be analyzed relate to performance evaluations, successful management, treatment of difficult situations, and issues relating to recruiting and compensation. The first concept that this student would like to discuss relates to the issue of performance evaluations. Whereas the performance evaluation is an oft dreaded part of many jobs, the key concepts that were learned within the class helped this student to approach the issue with a new mindset. The fact of the matter is that performance reviews are not in and of themselves a negative; rather, employees have been conditioned to think so due to a number of factors. The first and most prescient of these, as has been demonstrated within class, is the fact that the performance review process is often ignored up until the very last minute. In this way, the employee oftentimes has positively no indication of how their performance has been gauged for the entirety of the period in question. Accordingly, what th is affects is a situation in which dread is the primary emotion with which the employee greets the process (Muller 2009). However, as the readings and course work have demonstrated, a far superior model whereby to engage employee and/or shareholder buy in within such a process is to make the entire performance review process something that is straightforward, clearly enumerated, and transparent. In this way, the element of the unknown is removed as the employee is able to engage with the employer (and vice versa) as a means of understanding the extent to which obligations, goals, and metrics were met during the period in question. Rather than seeking to fundamentally redefine the performance review process, the best model of improvement is contingent upon all parties involved keeping clear lines of communication open throughout the period so that when the review comes up, no clarifications will be necessitated. The role of management within a given firm or organization is a topic th at has encouraged a great many professionals and writers to expound upon better and more sophisticated models. Yet, as has been learned within this particular class, there is not a definitive definition of correct management; rather, there is a litany of examples of incorrect management. Such is the case due to the fact that the field of management and managerial practice is so broad and nuanced as a result of the host of different personalities that different managers bring to the process. Moreover, the fact that there are clearly discernible incorrect management practices is more helpful in guiding and directing the practitioner towards methods and applications that would minimize these incorrect practices and steer the process back towards a more appropriate direction. By means of understanding this, the reader/researcher and/or student can and should understand that although a litany of best practices are existent within the realm of management, the best method of directing the proper application thereof within the current workplace is to ensure that the smaller subset of negative management practices are avoided at all costs. These include but are not limited to: micromanagement, hands off approaches, the development of non-professional employee-boss relationships, unhealthy power dynamics, and many, many others. As a way of being mindful and understanding

Random Walk Theory of Share Price Movements Essay

Random Walk Theory of Share Price Movements - Essay Example A lot many efforts were made towards identifying a predictable trading pattern which could be used for chasing profitable deals. From the mid-1950s to the early 1980s, a random walk theory (RWT) of share prices was developed based on the past empirical evidence of randomness in share price movements. RWT basically stated that speculative price changes were independent and identically distributed, so that the past price data had no predictive power for future share price movements. RWT also stated that the distribution of price changes from transaction to transaction had finite variance. In addition, if transactions were fairly uniformly spread across time and were large in numbers, then the Central Limit Theorem suggested that the price changes would be normally distributed. Kendall (1953) calculated the first differences of twenty-two different speculative price series at weekly intervals from 486 to 2,387 terms. He concluded that the random changes from one term to the next were la rge and obfuscated any systematic effect which may be present. In fact, he stated that 'the data behaved almost like a wandering series' (random walk). Specifically, an analysis of share price movement revealed little serial correlation, with the conclusion that there was very little predictability of movements in share prices for a week ahead without extraneous information. In 1959, Roberts generated a pattern of market levels and changes akin to actual levels and changes in the Dow Jones Industrial Index. He estimated the probability of different share price movements over time by using a frequency distribution of historical changes in the weekly market index, and assumed weekly changes were independently drawn from a normal distribution with a mean of + 0.5 and a standard deviation of 5.0. He concluded that changes in security prices behaved as if they had been generated by a simple chance model .The fundamental concept behind random walk theory is that competition in perfect mar kets would remove excess economic profits, except from those parties who exercised some degree of market monopoly. This meant that a trader with specialized information about future events could profit from the monopolistic access to information, but that fundamental and technical analysts who rely on past information should not expect to have speculative gains.From the theory of random walks arose the theory of efficient markets. The Efficient Markets Hypothesis (EMH) states that current prices always 'fully reflect' available information, so that the only reason prices change between time t and time t+1 is the arrival of new information. The EMH requires that only two necessary conditions be met. First, the market must be aware of all available information .The type of information available is determined by the strength of the EMH being tested. In a Weak Form EMH, current prices entirely reflect all that can be known from the study of historical prices and trading volumes. If the Weak Form is valid, technical